Out of Earth and Fire: An Environmental History of the Copper Company "Norddeutsche Affinerie" and Its Global Entanglements (1866-1990)

Copper is the backbone of infrastructure systems, and will become even more vital as key material in renewable energy technologies. "Out of Earth and Fire" traces the history of the Hamburg-based copper smelter and refinery "Norddeutsche Affinerie" from 1866 until the 1990s. Originating from a backyard family business in the city centre since the 17th century, the company grew to become one of the world's largest producers of non-ferrous metals. As a custom smelter without its own mines, the company imported copper raw materials from over sixty countries. Combining approaches from environmental and business history as well as material history, this study examines trade relations, social and environmental consequences of copper production from Hamburg around the world.